OUTLINE: HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY

by Robert B. Gayhart ( Chemistry Department, Bradley University,
Peoria, IL 61625 {rbg@bradley.edu} )

Based upon the 1961 poster by Herbert S. Klickstein (University of Pennsylvania; Associate Editor of Chymia) entitled "Mallinckrodt Outline of the History of Chemistry;" with permission from Mallinckrodt, Inc. The 1961 poster was based upon
the 1927 outline by Norris W. Rakestraw (former editor, Journal of Chemical Education).


Pre-1800 History
Elements (pre-1800)
Post-1800 chemistry

People

HOME PAGE
Nobel Prize winners

Subject Index

Topics (Nobel Prizes)
Periodic Table
(element index)

This heavily cross-referenced outline of the History of Chemistry is based upon two major components:
  1. Events, discoveries and currents of thought prior to 1800, the approximate date for the dawning of modern chemistry.
  2. Developments since 1800 in the sub-categories of chemistry (general, analytical, physical and organic chemistry, biochemistry ) as well as contemporary events, personalities, technology and discoveries.
The first component begins with very early (500 B.C. and onward) technology and philosophical understandings in Greece, India and China. A considerable literature of ancient practical arts provided a foundation for the mix of middle eastern philosophy, technology and astronomy that was early alchemy including Arabian and Chinese alchemy. During the eighth to the thirteenth centuries, most writings summarized known technology and methods of assay.

Further scientific and technological improvements were somewhat impeded by the tendency of alchemists to be secretive but propelled by efforts in and interpretations of observations on gases ("pneumatic chemistry"). Experiments involving accurate weighings of reactants and products eventually debunked some early concepts (e.g., phlogiston, etc. ) that were used to explain calcination and combustion. After improvements in communication (1645, Royal Society, 1666, Académie Royale des Sciences, etc.) of science and in accurate measurement and observation, the faint outlines of modern chemistry began to be proposed, most prominently by Lavoisier.

The second component begins with the work of Dalton (building on the work of Lavoisier, et al.), who together with Berzelius, Berthollet, and others was able to build upon the earlier body of work in observations and measurements of chemical reactions and processes and to propose a well-founded organization for chemistry as well as fundamental ideas such as the atom. From this solid beginning, with continued free communication of observations and results, discoveries occurred at an accelerated rate and the familiar sub-disciplines of chemistry (analytical, physical, inorganic and organic chemistry and biochemistry) developed steadily through the nineteenth century and rapidly through the twentieth century. Some of the major accomplishments in chemistry since 1901 have been recognized with the Nobel Prize.

Below is a rough outline of the history of chemistry (with notes which are accessible via the superscripted letters):

1. FUNDAMENTALS 2. THE SPECULATIVE SIDE OF ANCIENT CHEMISTRY (up to ~600 A.D.)

3. THE ANCIENT PRACTICAL ARTS (380 B.C. until 80 A.D.)

Era of accumulation of observations, recipes, and some innovations in technology.

4. ALCHEMY AND CONTEMPORARY TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
  1. EARLY ALCHEMY (1st to 7th Century).
  2. Early MEDIEVAL MANUSCRIPTS (8th to 13th Centuries).
  3. LATER ALCHEMY including iatrochemistryb (1300-1700 A.D.).
5. PRELUDE TO MODERN CHEMISTRY (1400-1800)
  1. discoveries of elements, early ideas of calcinationc and combustion, and "pneumatic chemistryd" .
  2. CONTEMPORARY SCIENCE, ART AND TECHNOLOGY (1400-1800)
6. Dawn and development of MODERN CHEMISTRY (1800-1960):

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Click on S & I to see the text of the brief presentation of a history of chemistry as exhibited at the Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago, IL).